Importance of Statistics

IMPORTANCE OF STATISTICS In today's world we are faced with situations everyday where statistics can be applied. Statistics can be used to determine the potential outcome of thousands of things where the human mind alone wouldn't be able to. Statistics benefits all of us because we are able to predict the future based on data we have previously gathered. Being able to predict the future not only changes our lifestyle but also helps us be more efficient and effective. Statistics is the science of collection, analysis, and presentation of data.Statisticians contribute to scientific enquiry by applying their knowledge to the design of surveys and experiments; the collection, processing, and analysis of data; and the interpretation of the results. Statisticians may apply their knowledge of statistical methods to a variety of subject areas, such as biology, economics, engineering, medicine, public health, psychology, marketing, education, and sports. Many economic, social, political, and military decisions cannot be made without statistical techniques, such as the design of experiments to gain federal approval of a newly manufactured drug.Statisticians provide crucial guidance in determining what information is reliable and which predictions can be trusted. They often help search for clues to the solution of a scientific mystery and sometimes keep investigators from being misled by false impressions Why do we need to study statistics? There are five major reasons to study statistics: * The first reason is to be able to effectively conduct research. Without the use of statistics it would be very difficult to make decisions based on the data collected from a research project.For example, in the study cited in Chapter One, is the difference in recorded absenteeism between psychiatric and obstetrics nurses large enough to conclude that there is meaningful difference in absenteeism between the two units? There are two possibilities: The first possibility is that the diff erence between the two groups is a result of chance factors. In reality, the two jobs have approximately the same amount of absenteeism. The second possibility is that there is a real difference between the two units with the psychiatric unit being more nurses missing work.Without statistics we have no way of making an educated decision between the two possibilities. Statistics, however, provides us with a tool to make an educated decision. We will be able to decide which of the two possibilities is more likely to be true. We will base this decision on our knowledge of probability and inferential statistics. A second point about research should be made. It is extremely important for a researcher to know what statistics they want to use before they collect their data. Otherwise data might be collected that is uninterruptable.Unfortunately, when this happens it results in a loss of data, time, and money. Now many a student may by saying to themselves: â€Å"But I never plan on doing any research. † While you may never plan to be involved in research, it may find its way into your life. Certainly, it you decide to continue your education and work on a masters or doctoral degree, involvement in research will result from that decision. Secondly, more and more work places are conducting internal research or are becoming part of broader research studies. Thus, you may find yourself assigned to one of these studies.Finally, many classes on the undergraduate level may require you to conduct research (for example, a research methods or experimental psychology course). In each of these instances, a knowledge of measurements and statistics will be invaluable. * The second reason to study statistics is to be able to read journals. Most technical journals you will read contain some form of statistics. Usually, you will find them in something called the results section. Without an understanding of statistics, the information contained in this section will be meaningle ss.An understanding of basic statistics will provide you with the fundamental skills necessary to read and evaluate most results sections. The ability to extract meaning from journal articles and the ability to critically evaluate research from a statistical perspective are fundamental skills that will enhance your knowledge and understanding in related coursework. * The third reason is to further develop critical and analytic thinking skills. Most students completing high school and introductory undergraduate coursework have at their disposal a variety of critical thinking and analytic skills.The study of statistics will serve to enhance and further develop these skills. To do well in statistics one must develop and use formal logical thinking abilities that are both high level and creative. * The fourth reason to study statistics is to be an informed consumer. Like any other tool, statistics can be used or misused. Yes, it is true that some individuals do actively lie and mislead with statistics. More often, however, well meaning individuals unintentionally report erroneous statistical conclusions. If you know some of the basic statistical concepts, you will be in a better position to evaluate the information you have been given. The fifth reason to have a working knowledge of statistics is to know when you need to hire a statistician. Most of us know enough about our cars to know when to take it into the shop. Usually, we don't attempt the repair ourselves because we don't want to cause any irreparable damage. Also, we try to know enough to be able to carry on an intelligible conversation with the mechanic (or we take someone with us who can) to insure that we don't get a whole new engine (big bucks) when all we need is a new fuel filter (a few bucks). We should be the same way about hiring a statistician.Conducting research is time consuming and expensive. If you are in over your statistical head, it does not make sense to risk an entire project by attempt ing to compute the data analyses yourself. It is very east to compute incomplete or inappropriate statistical analysis of one's data. As with the mechanic discussed above, it is also important to have enough statistical savvy to be able to discuss your project and the data analyses you want computed with the statistician you hire. In other words, you want to be able to make sure that your statistician is on the right track.To summarize, the five reasons to study statistics are to be able to effectively conduct research, to be able to read and evaluate journal articles, to further develop critical thinking and analytic skills, to act as an informed consumer, and to know when you need to hire outside statistical help. How statistics are used in business areas Statistics clearly has real world applications in all of the subjects you list. * Accounting – Random sampling is frequently used by accounting firms when accounts (like travel expenses) are relatively small and inconseque ntial.You can use a random sample to estimate the quality of the whole population of accounts. * Finance – Trend analysis and correlation are common when making economic forecasts. * Management – Sampling of opinion polls and data pertaining to personnel. These are often summarized with estimates of errors. * Marketing – Customer surveys, correlations between advertising outlays and increased revenues. Estimates of market sizes use sampling. Product quality is also a rich field for statistical analysis. Any time you want a quick answer, you can get a good estimate by using statistical sampling.For example, a stratified random sample of accounts can be used instead of an exact calculation when you have paper sales orders (or pending sales orders) that are not entered into the computer. Make sure to count all the big ones, and you can estimate the small ones. On the other hand following ways, statistics can be possible to use in the business area. In general a typ ical organization has three levels: Strategic, Managerial and Oper- ational. This classi? cation is somewhat general and arbitrary. However, this can help identify and emphasize di? rent tools to be directed at the di? erent levels. We envision Statistics to play important roles at all these levels. Strategic Level (Top of an Organization) At the strategic level the most emphasis should be on Statistical thinking which Have the following components: * Notion of a Process, * Notion of measurement and data based decisions, * Understanding and dealing with variation, * Statistical tools, and * Systematic approach. The notion of process thinking is fundamental to any organizational change. Every action has some inputs and outputs which need to be identi? d in every context. Decisions at the strategic level should be based on facts supported by appropriate data and this requires an understanding of variation (Deming 1986). Business and Industry have seen the arrival and demise of many pr ograms such as Total Quality Management. Embracing any program that comes along without ? rm commitment and understanding is doomed to failure. Managerial Level (Middle Level) This is the level at which systems are devised for implementation of the directions taken by upper management.In particular, systems for robust product and pro- cess design, process control and improvement, and training are the responsibility of middle management. Understanding of some statistical tools and statistical thinking are prerequisites for those who are designing these systems. Operational Level At this level the methods are implemented through the system built at the mana- gerial level. Understanding of statistical tools such as control charting, capability analysis, design of experiments, measurement system analysis, regression analysis etc are essential.Appropriate statistical tools need to be used by operational peo- ple as part of their daily work. People in some areas need to know the details o nly of certain statistical tools. For instance, an operator responsible for maintaining stability of a process by charting should know the workings of a control chart but need not know a lot about design of experiments. On the other hand an engineer responsible for process improvement should be knowledgeable in several aspects of statistical process control and design of experiments.How entrepreneur minimizes the business risk By using following tools, am entrepreneur can minimize the business risk. Those are: * Business forecasting * Risk return analysis in portfolio and project management * Probability concept in manufacturing area and others Statistics are used all over the world. They can be applied in almost any situation and can always help. They are used in explaining group behavior of organisms, marketing research, and the list goes on and on. A good example is how scientists observe the behavior of groups of animals.Scientists can record data from a group of elephants and d etermine that a certain percentage of elephant herds will defend themselves from predators while the other percentage may run away. This kind of data can help scientists predict the elephant's lifestyle and culture. Statistics affects our daily life every day. Researchers use statistics to advertise their products which in turn we the consumer purchase. The price of the products we buy are determined upon statistics which show the demand for the product at that point in time and because of these statistics, we the consumers pay a certain amount of money to buy the product.Another example of how statistics affect me is in school. Every year statistics are looked over and the curriculums for the classes I take are based on data collected in the past. The curriculums are modified and help the learning process. In conclusion, statistics are a major staple of our world today. They are used in practically any situation and help improve our overall lifestyle. Statistics change the way we t hink about tomorrow and the way we live today and without them.

The Jungle

It is an elemental odor, raw and crude; it is rich, almost rancid, sensual and strong. â€Å"| Meat packing industry makes the reader disgusted from the detail of the odor| Parallelism| â€Å"It is a sound, a sound made up of ten thousand little sounds. You scarcely noticed it at first-it sunk into your consciousness, a vague disturbance, a trouble. 1`7| This quote has to do with immigration and giving the character a more humanistic view to the reader| pathos| â€Å"Relentless, remorseless, it was; all his protests, his screams, were nothing to it–it did its cruel will with him, as if his wishes, his feelings, had simply no existence at all; it cut his throat and watched him gasp out his life. â€Å"| This gives the reader an idea of how he felt about being an immigrant| Parallelism| â€Å"The orchestral uproar sound like fairy music† pg. | Adds a picture and sound in the readers mind| Simile| â€Å"Some hold each other tightly some at a cautious distance† p g. 8| Immigrant- Makes the reader feel sympathetic toward the characters| Anaphora| â€Å"his demon are driving him. † pg 5| The reader gets an insight into the characters mind| Metaphor| â€Å"Little one,† he said, in a low voice, â€Å"do not worry – it will not matter to us. We will pay them all somehow. I will work harder. † 21| Immigration- This gives a lot of sympathy to the characters| Polysyndeton| â€Å"Soil draining into it† pg 27| Talks about the meat packing industry| Alliteration | The scars would never heal if he did not quit† pg 69| This quote gets sympathy from the reader and expresses the work ethics| Ethos| Hour after hour, day after day, year after year naked little fingers in the unheated cellar† pg 63| It describes the poor conditions of the meat packing industry to the reader| Parallelism| â€Å"The first family had been germans† 57| This takes away from the complexity of what the audience is reading| Simple sentence| â€Å"†¦brought around the corner was water and doctored with formaldehyde besides? 67| This gives the reader a awful vicious angry thought/ image| Rhetor. | So from the top to bottom the place is simply a seething cauldron of jealousies and hatreds; there is no loyalty or decency anywhere about it, there is no place in it where a man counted for anything against a dollar. † 55| It makes the characters seem very hurt and sad which allows the audience to be more inticed| Polysyndeton| â€Å"He ever missed a meeting however†| Shows how dedicated the workers were| Simple sent| â€Å"He had been in jail for three days and had disappeared† 58| Shows what new things the immigrants have turned to based on the working conditions| Polysyndeton| â€Å"One bitter Febuary morning the little boy lay down and rolled in agony. † 71| The characters seem miserable and adds an image to the audience of how cold and poor they were| Imagery/pathos| â€Å" An d so she raised her hands† 69| Shows how desperate for help the immigrants were. Simple sentence| â€Å"And, for this, at the end of the week, he will carry home three dollars to his family, being his pay at the rate of five cents per hour-just about his proper share of the million and three quarters of children who are now engaged in earning their livings in the United States. † 6| This show how desperate the immigrants were and how little they were payed which adds sympathy. | Logos| â€Å"This is no fairy story and no joke; the meat will be shoveled into carts and the man who did the shoveling will not trouble to lift out a rat even when he saw one.Pg 103| Shows the unsanitary conditions of the industry by supriseing the reader saying they would take rats| Imagery| â€Å"To Jurgis this man's whole presence reeked of the crime he had committed; the touch of his body was madness to him-it set every nerve of him a-tremble, it aroused all the demon in his soul. â€Å" 15| It reapeats the fact that jurgis has a â€Å"demon in his soul† which reinforces the readers thought | Repitition| â€Å"They were beaten; they had lost the game, they were swept aside.It was not less tragic because it was so sordid, because that it had to do with wages and grocery bills and rents. They had dreamed of freedom; of a chance to look about them and learn something; to be decent and clean, to | The poor wages that workers receive allow them to not afford very many things which give s the reader a clear message of the character. | Asyndeton| â€Å"My God- let me die, let me die! 164| This shows the reader how miserable the character is to the point of wanting death| Repitition| â€Å"He was of no consequence he was flung aside, like a bit of trash, the carcus of some dead animal† 147| Explains that the characters were treated like dead animals and gets the characters sympathy| Simile| they brought him food and drink-why, in the name of heaven, if they must punish him, did they not put his family in jail and leave him outside-why could they find no better way to punish him than to leave three weak women and six helpless children to starve and freeze? 6| Gives the main character a very bleak situation which allows the reader to see the punishments and how poorly they and families were treated| Rhetorical question| â€Å"He has no wit to trace back the social crime to its far sources-he could not say that it is the thing men have called â€Å"the system† that is crushing him to the earth; that it is the packers, his masters, who has dealt their brutal will to him from the seat of justice. â€Å"| This quote explains how unfairly immigrants were treated by the gov. Polysyndeton| â€Å"We having been borrowing and begging to keep alive and there is nothing more we can do† 165| They have just given up which allows the audience to root for them| Alliteration| â€Å"Jurgis has discovered drink† 128| Foreshadows jur gis battle with alcohol| Simple sentence| â€Å"You would have done well to think about them before you commited the assault,’ said the judge,dryly, as he turned to look at the next prisoner. † 154| This shows the small bit of importance immigrants had in society. | asyndeton| The word rang through him like the sound of a bell, echoing in the far depths of him, making forgotten chords to vibrate, old shadowy fears to stir-fears of the dark, fears of the void, fears of annihilation. She was dead! She was dead! â€Å"| It uses imagery to explain how awful he felt also repeated the last part to make It stick to the reader. | Asyndeton repetition| â€Å"Only think that he had been a countryman all his life; and for three long years he had never seen a country sight nor heard a country sound! | Shows how deprived the character have been during this time| Exclimation| â€Å"Ah what agony is that, what despair, when the tomb of memory is rent open and the ghosts of his old life come forth to scourge him! â€Å"| It uses this to show the reader of how he feels. | Metaphor| â€Å"They are trying to save their souls-and who but a fool could fail to see that all that is the matter with their souls is that they has not been able to get a decent existence for their bodies? â€Å"| By asking a question it makes the reader think and ponder| Question| â€Å"This last was a great blessing. | The return of the coat causes the reader to oreshadow whats next| Simple sent| â€Å"†The gray dawn came up and crept into the attic† 181| It uses symbolism to show how jurgis is feeling| Personification| â€Å"There was a rainbow in the sky and another in his breast.. the time he came home from jail.. 191| It contrast totally different feelings he has without actually saying it to the reader| juxtaposition| â€Å"It was to good to last though.. like most things in this hard world. † 172| This allows the reader to assume something bad will happen a gain| Foreshadow| â€Å"I haven’t got it, I haven’t got it,† 168| This forces that the situation is tense. Repitition| â€Å"To the man who consisted of doing one thing all day†¦ adventure! † 191| Brings the reader back to the meat industry working structure. | Exclimation| â€Å"All of these agencies of corruption were banded together, and leagued in blood brotherhood with the politician and the police; more often than not they were one and the same person,–the police captain would own the brothel he pretended to raid, and the politician would open his headquarters in his saloon. | This shows the reader how against the government was to immigrants| Pathos| â€Å"There is one kind of prison where the man is behind bars, and everything that he desires is outside; and there is another kind where things are behind bars, and the man is outside. â€Å"| It describes the life of the character and how he feels trapped| Parallelism| â€Å"When peo ple are starving and they have anything with a price, I guess you ought to sell it, I say. I guess you realize it now when it's too late. | This is not talking about selling some thing but more about what they have learned| symbolism| â€Å"The sentences of this man were to Jurgis like the crashing of thunder in his soul; a flood of emotion surged up in him-all his old hopes and longings, his old griefs and rages and despairs. â€Å"| Shows the reader how one character relates to another| simile| â€Å"In a society dominated by the fact of commercial competition, money is necessarily the test of prowess, and wastefulness the sole criterion of power. | Tells the reader what the main goal of meat packing industry was| Polysyndeton| Chicago will be ours! Chicago will be ours! CHICAGO WILL BE OURS! â€Å"| The passion the characters have uplifts the reader| Repition| â€Å"It struck fear to his heart. †278| This sentence really hits the reader as a strong sentence about the c haracters| Simple sentence| â€Å"What sort of man was he? † 280| Asking what time of person other people are makes the reader question themselves| Rhetorical ? | â€Å".. ad somehow expected his own family,that he loved; and now this sudden horrible discover, Marija a whore and Elibieta and the children living off her shame! † 259| When the character comes to a realization so does the reader| Exclamation| Jurgis had come in conflict with one of the creatures of the jungle whose powers were much greater then his own and he has been worsted in the combat to drag himself away† 260| This puts an idea in at the vantage point of jurgis which allows the reader to feel what he is feeling| Alliteration| I cannot rest. I can not be silent† 281| The character is tired of living this life and gets sympathy from the audience| repitition| To you workingmen! 282| Shares the passion of the speaker with the audience. | Exclamation. | â€Å"The human race lives and dies fo r them! † 285†| | | â€Å"A mighty giant†¦Ã¢â‚¬  286| Talking about the labor force, easier to comprehend. | Metaphor| â€Å"Why should they not all sit In silence? 288| Forces reader to answer questions| Rhetorical question| â€Å"With what was called the â€Å"iron law of wages†Ã¢â‚¬  291| Gives a different name to socialism| ethos| â€Å"and break the conspiracy of silence of the capital press†293| Talks about socialism related to that point in time for reader to get a setting| Personification| â€Å"Labor was there hog,and the public was their hog and they themselves†¦Ã¢â‚¬ 296| Audience sees the work forces manipulation| Personification| â€Å"†¦Into his stomach was simply playing a game with his life† 297| When eating meat packed food your putting your life at risk| metaphor| â€Å"simply the difference between civilization and savagery†298| Contrasts both things. | Parallelism| â€Å"was a squat man, with broad sh oulders and a florid face, decorated with gray side whiskers† 297| Gives the reader a view of billy hinds. | Imagery| â€Å"Do you think a man could make up a thing like that in his head? † 302| Contrast opposite things| antithesis| â€Å"made him somewhat as impatient as a teacher. †305| The audience sees how he feels/relatable | simile| â€Å"that was â€Å"paternalism†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ Paternalism†306| Forces the idea to stick in the heads of the audience throughout the page | Repatition. | â€Å"he he prince of Mercy and Love† 314| Shows characteristics| Imagery| After the revolution, all the intellectual, artistic and spiritual activities of men† 316| describes| anysyndeton| â€Å"I don’t know, but if he does I shall know he is a knave† 322| Depicts the views of characters upon other characters in the book. | parallelism| â€Å"Socialism! Socialism! † 330| Show the enthusiasm and push for socialism the people had t oward socialism| Repitition/ Exclamation| â€Å"His jaw fell loose and a deadly pallor fell over his face. †| Shows the fear jurgis had while seeing his boss. | imagery| â€Å"he was in the sight of the open door†¦Ã¢â‚¬  332| Juris’desperation to be free nut also for the reader to see not just being free from the cops| polysyndeton|

Processualism vs. Post-Processualism Research Paper - 1

Processualism vs. Post-Processualism - Research Paper Example Moreover, the postprocessual perspective which has a modern orientation has been found to cause diversity in archaeological arguments, which as a result has led to post-modernism misunderstandings. This article studies the history of Indiana Jones using the two approaches (Winterhalder, & Eric, 2000). It finally compares and contrasts the two approaches, and finally gives the findings of the study. Theories are guiding principles formulated to help people such as researchers to come up with sensible generalizations of the world around (Hegmon, 2003). This particular study focuses on Indiana Jones’ archaeological approach which is portrayed through drama. A lot of research has been done on this approach, in order to determine if it is a credible way of carrying out archeology. This paper will specifically apply the processual versus the postprocessual approach in trying to come up with sensible conclusions on this title. These approaches present to us the tools to apply in stud ying a particular topic of interest, so as to come up with relevant conclusions (Praetzellis, 2000). While the processual approach is the original way of studying how humans carried out their things, the Postprocessual approach criticizes the processual archaeology. Indiana Jones is considered to the world’s most famous archaeologist because of the role he plays in most of the movies he has acted (Winterhalder & Eric, 2000). His theoretical diversity in many of the movies he has acted, portray him as a real archeologist.

New Technology at Wallace Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

New Technology at Wallace - Case Study Example Wallace must embark on the new technology of computer-aided designing and manufacture.   A huge and important industry like the plastic industry stands to gain from the tremendous potential and opportunities in store, by upgrading to the new digital technology.  There are normal risks such as teething problems as it will take time for the staff to comfortably operate the new system. The operation in the initial stages will have to be put under high alert with round-the-clock supervision by skilled personnel to undertake to troubleshoot and rectify errors. Wallace has not been manufacturing molds, so the project of manufacturing molds will present new challenges and risks. The software must be guarded against hackers and virus attacks.  Reactions to the changeover to the new technology could be expected from customers and competitors. Most customers are already aware of the great strides the new technology is making into every stratum of the economy the world over. The competito rs to have no alternative except to follow suit.  Innovation will be costly. Not only the hardware and software but training and recruitment of trainers and engineers, training of staff on the new technology will call for proper planning and budgeting. The company has to work out the best source and mode of funding the transition.  The company has not been able to secure higher profits from its equipment for several years. Obviously, the equipment currently in use is either outdated or on the verge of obsolescence. Hence, the company has been correct in working on a development in the area of production automation that it believes would provide considerable value to its customers. Customers currently buy complete molds, which are handmade, from specialized suppliers. They are expensive and late delivery and teething troubles often lead to major delays for the plastics producers.  Under the new innovation, Wallace would produce the molds for use on its machines. Its customers w ould be provided with software that would enable them to specify the mold and transmit the specification to Wallace. Wallace would then produce the mold to the customer's design and deliver it by courier. This innovation is geared to reduce costs and increase the speed with which the company could respond to each order from its customers. Moreover, it would enable them to increase the variety and sophistication of product shapes that they manufacture. Every industry has turned over or is on the verge of turning over, to the new technology of computer-aided designing and manufacture. The plastic industry is an important industry of mass production. With its colossal usage the world over, and its tremendous resource in terms of finance as well as raw material, it has the wherewithal to garner the needed resource to find ways and means to incorporate cutting edge technology to boost its efficiency and output. Wallace is no exception.

Bioterrorism Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Bioterrorism - Research Paper Example k of severe, unexplained acute respiratory disease now known as hantavirus pulmonary syndrome in the Spring of 1993, the nationwide foodborne salmonellosis outbreak caused by contaminated ice cream that accounted for an estimated 250,000 cases in the fall of 1994, and the increasing problems posed by antimicrobial-resistant organisms in community and health-care settings† (Hughes, 1999, par. 2). The article written by Tucker (1999) has revealed that most of the biological agent cases turned out to be hoaxes. As explicitly revealed, â€Å"of the terrorist attacks with biological agents, only one resulted in casualties: the use by the Rajneeshee cult in 1984 of Salmonella Typhimurium bacteria to contaminate restaurant salad bars in The Dalles, Oregon. This event caused 751 cases of food poisoning, none fatal† (Tucker: Conclusion, 1999, par. 1). Despite the differences in findings, the government has obviously been keen on evaluating, monitoring, and assuming a proactive stance in addressing terrorist attacks, especially involving biological agents (Hughes, 1999). According to the Homeland Security, a national biodefense program has been put into place to address threats of biological agents (Homeland Security, n.d.). It was therefore disclosed that as part of the intensified need to address threats of bioterrorism, the Homeland Security has been assigned to establish four pillars of the defense program, to wit: â€Å"Threat Awareness; Prevention and Protection; Surveillance and Detection; (and) Response and Recovery† (Homeland Security, n.d., p. 1). As part of the government’s public health policy, close coordination and collaboration with state and federal health agencies are encouraged, especially in examining potential biological threats. As emphasized, â€Å"intelligence analysts and biodefense experts at the National Biological Threat Characterization Center conduct studies and laboratory experiments, filling in information gaps to help us better understand and

Working with the Gay, Lesbian, Bi-sexual, and Transgendered therapy Research Paper

Working with the Gay, Lesbian, Bi-sexual, and Transgendered therapy patient - Research Paper Example These challenges often end up impacting on the actual effectiveness of the therapeutic sessions. It is therefore important for counselors to find out as much information about his patients as possible. In working with lesbians, gays, bisexuals, and transgendered clients, this is not much different. The most information which can ensure effectiveness during therapy must be established. This paper shall discuss how counselors can effectively work with lesbians, gays, bisexual and transgendered (LGBT) clients. It shall synthesize research about the population and present the most important information about working with them. This study is being carried out in order to establish a clear and comprehensive understanding of the LGBT and to ensure effectiveness of the counseling process. Discussion Gays and lesbian and other transgendered individuals often feel isolated from the rest of the world (Callahan, 2001). For the most part, they also have a poor self-image which often prompts them to hide their sexual orientation from the rest of society. They also try to fit into society by trying out conventional and accepted activities and actions for their gender (Callahan, 2001). For counselors working with teen LGBT, they must gather as much information as they can about homosexuality. ... In effect, some experts have expressed the need for counselors to gather up-to-date information about their gay students through a human sexuality course (Callahan, 2001). Such course may assist counselors in recognizing their possible roles involving their suicidal gay students and those going through similar mental breakdowns in relation to their sexuality. In working with LGBTs, it is also important for counselors to be their patients’ advocates, especially in the schools and the communities. Through this advocacy, it is possible to open up the lines of communication between the other students and the gay community – to help incorporate these individuals into mainstream society (Callahan, 2001). Counselors must also try their best to support and protect this sexual minority by creating a safe environment in which these students can enter. By making it safe for them to seek counseling, it is possible to increase the number of LGBTs seeking counseling and eventually he lp safeguard their mental health. In a study by Bartlett, et.al., (2001) the authors set out to establish the therapeutic approaches taken by contemporary psychotherapists and psychoanalysts in relation to their gay and lesbian clients. They were able to establish that gays and lesbians seeking psychoanalytic therapy in the National Health Service for personal reasons would have difficulties finding gay therapists if they want one. This study also established that clients may often encounter overt or covert bias, including the pathologisation of homosexuality (Bartlett, et.al., 2001). In a paper by Godfrey, et.al., (2006) the authors set out to determine the knowledge, experiences, and values that therapists must possess in order to ensure quality therapy services for gays,

Experience mis Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Experience mis - Assignment Example Again, Laudon & Laudon, (2011) argues that listening to the needs of the customers is a way of improving the market product produced by the market. Ensuring that communication between customers and the staff is enhanced offers a pathway for feedback. Creating barriers to new entry into the market is important to a business’ success (Laudon & Laudon, 2011). Using information systems, the restaurant can effectively provide barriers to any new entrants in the market. For example, the restaurant can use customer feedback to ensure that the customers remain satisfied. Customer satisfaction leads to customer loyalty and hence any new competition finds it difficult to operate effectively. On top of that, the restaurant can use its network to research on any new product that is coming up in the market. This ensures that the customers are not enticed to shift loyalty to the new entrant because the restaurant provides all the products the customers need. Therefore, the use of information systems is paramount to the restaurant’s success in blocking any new entry of

A literature review of gifted sutdents Dissertation

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Integrated Occupational Therapy Practice Case Study

Integrated Occupational Therapy Practice Case Study Introduction This report will focus on the occupational therapy (OT) process for Meera (Appendix A), a 56-year-old woman with a left cerebral vascular accident (CVA). Stroke is the death of brain cells due to the lack of oxygen (Bartels et al. 2016).It can either present as haemorrhagic or ischaemic in nature. Risk factors of CVA include hypertension and hypercholesterolemia which Meera has. Stroke may lead to neurological, psychological, speech and musculoskeletal complications. Meeras symptoms of right hemiplegia, right sided neglect and speech difficulties can be attributed to the occlusion of her left middle cerebral artery (Mtui et al. 2016). A multidisciplinary inpatient stroke rehabilitation unit was involved with Meeras post-stroke rehabilitation. Stroke patients who underwent treatment inpatient stroke care were found to have improved independence (Stroke Unit Trialists Collaboration 2013). Treatment was aimed at managing vital problems through restorative and compensatory approaches in order to prepare her for discharge (Edmans 2010). Thus, this service was most appropriate for Meera due to her recent onset of stroke. The OT process was guided by recommendations from the College of Occupational Therapist, National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE)(2013) and Intercollegiate Stroke Working Party (ISWP)(2016)(Edmans 2010). Assessments and Problems Identified An initial assessment was gathered through an interview using the Kawa Model. It portrays a persons life as a river and various objects such as rocks, river banks and driftwood depict circumstances experienced by a person (Teoh and Iwama 2015). Younger stroke patients such as Meera may require services which cater particularly to their needs which most stroke units were found not to do so (ISWP 2016). As Kawa focuses on the view of the client, it allows the therapist to know what is important to Meera in order to formulate priorities for intervention. The assessment is shown below: Life flow and priorities (river) Past Medical History: Hypertension Hypercholesterolemia Roles and Occupations: Independent in self-care Proud Stay at home mother Took charge of matters at home such as: Cleaning Shopping Gardening Laundry Enjoys cooking for family Present Medical History: Stroke Roles and Occupations: Patient Needs assistance in most self-care tasks Loss of previous role and not engaging in occupations meaningful to her Future Meera felt afraid and pointless to talk about the future, worrying that she may have another stroke if she engaged in activity. Obstacle and Challenges (rocks) Occupational performance challenges: Right hemiplegia with increased spasticity in right arm and leg, causing difficulty in: Sitting Coordination of movement Tasks that require her hands due to being right handed Unable to feel sensations on right hand Feels she cannot remember things as easily and may not know the time and place she is at Right sided neglect with visual agnosia, resulting in difficulty : washing right side awareness of people approaching from affected side interacting with others Expressive dysphagia hinders communication with others. Feeling low mostly Feels useless Embarrassed that people are taking care of her Fatigues easily Concerns Family unable to function as she is unable to manage the household A burden to family, especially her husband who needs to manage the household together with the pressure at work now that she is in hospital Childrens studies and social life may be affected as they may be concerned about Meera and visiting her in hospital may affect their daily life Physical and Social Environment (river banks) Physical (Home) 3 room semi-detached Bathroom, toilet and bedroom on the upper storey Kitchen, combined living and dining room on ground floor Nearest bus stop and convenience store 10 minutes walk away Social Close knit family Meera usually supports family members as they will confide her during difficulties Looks forward to dinner every day where family will gather together Family is most vital source of support for Meera Frequent interaction with neighbours and will help each other with chores if needed Occasionally communicates with extended family overseas on phone Personal resources (driftwood) Personality Hardworking Afraid of trying new things Kind and caring Responsible With information from the initial assessment, the problem list was formulated in a client-centred manner (ISWP 2016). Stroke survivors felt more engaged in the therapeutic process when their perspectives were taken into account (Peoples et al. 2011). Interventions were based on Meeras perceived problems in order to increase her motivation in therapy which she lacked. However the Kawa model only shows the problems perceived by Meera but not the therapists views. In order to gather a clinical and therapeutic point of view, standardized assessments were conducted as well. The table below depicts the various assessment conducted, reasons for use, limitations and results. Assessment Reasons for use and limitations Results Assessment of Motor and Process Skills (AMPS) (Fisher and Jones 2010) AMPS evaluates motor and processing skills of clients through observation of appropriate tasks (Fisher and Jones 2010). Self-care, specifically showering, dressing and cooking tasks which was important to Meera, were used to assess. This allowed the OT to break the tasks down and acknowledge the challenges Meera faced in order to formulate an appropriate intervention. AMPS was found to be valid, reliable and standardized among cultures but results has to be computer generated in order to be valid which may make the process tedious (Fisher and Jones 2010). Less than 1 for both motor (Moderate increase in physical effort) and process (Moderate inefficiency and disorganization) skills. Loewenstein Occupational Therapy Cognitive Assessment (LOTCA) (Itzkovich et al. 2000) LOTCA evaluates the orientation, visual and spatial perception, visual-motor organization and thinking operations through the use of various activities included in the kit (Itzkovich et al. 2000). This allowed the OT to assess Meeras right sided neglect and to discover any underlying cognitive deficits. The LOTCA is reliable and valid for use in people with stroke but needed to be conducted in more than one sitting as assessments were long and tedious for Meera who experience fatigue (Katz et al. 2000). Meera was able to sequence tasks but was unable to complete tasks involving her right field of vision. She needed prompts to complete orientation tasks. Activities involving memory were also a challenge for her. Rivermead Motor Assessment (RMA) (Lincoln and Leadbitter 1979) The RMA consists of tests evaluating the gross, leg, trunk and arm function of a stroke patient (Lincoln and Leadbitter 1979). This was conducted together with the physiotherapist. The RMA allowed the team to know which movements Meera had difficulties in order to formulate appropriate interventions. This assessment was found to be reliable and valid but due to being strenuous and long, it had to be conducted in a few sessions due to Meera showing signs of fatigue (Kurtais 2009) Meera was not independent in transfers and mobility, she required assistance of one for transfers and used a wheelchair for mobility. She also had minimum trunk and leg control at her affected side and require assistance for movement. However, she is able to hold objects using her affected arm but cannot reach for an object far away due to scapular instability. Â  From these assessments, 3 problems Meera faced, in order of significance was developed: 1. Loss of independence in self-care affected Meera the most. From the assessments conducted, it was found that challenges in motor, cognition and perception affected her performance in self-care. Managing self-care would focus on these domains as well (NICE 2013). It was hoped that Meera would be more engaged in therapy by focusing on an issue she perceived as critical. This was evidenced by a study where patients were more motivated and engaged more in interventions when treatment was catered to their perceived needs (Combs et al. 2010). This would also help Meera to elevate her mood as low involvement in self-care was found to be a factor for post-stroke depression (Jiang et al. 2014). The psychologist in the team would be managing Meeras low mood as well (ISWP 2016). By working with Meera on her self-care would also remove some burden from Sanjay, who was assumed to be her main carer when she is discharged from hospital. 2. Problems with visual perception, specifically right side neglect and agnosia, were targeted as it was found to have an influence on self-care (Barker-Collo et. al 2010). This would help Meera in performing self-care tasks. Her visual deficits also affected her social life and transfers. Managing her perceptual problems would allow her to interact more with other patients in the ward which could provide her with social support. 3. Meeras motor challenges, specifically right side weakness and spasticity were addressed as it was one of the major challenges faced during self-care. It was hoped that through the management of motor deficits, Meera would increase her engagement in occupations. This would also have a positive effect for Meera in future as it was shown that physical function affected quality of life in stroke patients (Ellis et al. 2013). Motor challenges faced by Meera would be managed in conjunction with the physiotherapist (ISWP 2016). Skills in managing motor challenges can also be transferred to other aspects such as cooking and reinstating her role as a homemaker. Treatment Plan Client Aims: Meera wants to be more engaged in her personal care. Therapist Aims: To increase Meeras engagement in her self-care tasks. To manage Meeras right sided neglect and agnosia. To manage Meeras weakness and spasticity in her right arm, leg and trunk. Objectives: Meera should be able take charge of her own shower and dressing every morning for an hour, with assistance of one, in 4 weeks. Meera should be able to independently identify items required on her right field of vision for washing and dressing every morning in 4 weeks. Meera should be able to go from lying to sitting, and pivot transfer from bed to wheelchair as well as from wheelchair to shower chair, every morning with assistance of one in 4 weeks. Intervention Washing and dressing assessment was conducted through the use of AMPS. This allowed the OT to formulate an appropriate wash and dress plan for multi-disciplinary use through identified difficulties in motor and processing skills (Fisher and Jones 2010). Using a meaningful occupation as a basis for intervention was beneficial for Meera. This can be supported by a study where occupation based intervention was shown to be critical in improving occupational performance (Wolf et al. 2015). The intensity of the intervention would be higher than the recommended minimum frequency of 45 minutes, 5 days a week as it was included in Meeras daily routine (NICE 2013). The washing and dressing plan was adapted from Salisbury District Hospitals (2013) assessment form. The OT conducted the first session in order to teach Meera the relevant compensatory and visual scanning skills. Other sessions could be conducted by other staff with guidance from the plan. A further review after every few days would also be required in accordance to recommendations (ISWP 2016). Washing and dressing plan for Meera Transfers Bed Mobility: Meera is able to roll to her right side independently. She requires assistance from lying to sitting. Bed to wheelchair: Require assistance of one for pivot transfer Standing: Require assistance of one and grab rail in the bathroom Wheelchair to shower chair: Require assistance of one for pivot transfer Allow Meera to navigate to bathroom Washing Notes: Require the use of a shower chair in the shower Allow Meera to initiate and sequence task independently Only give Meera assistance when she asks for it Place items necessary for shower on Meeras right side If Meera seems to be searching for something, prompt her to look for it by turning her head Encourage use of right hand to wash herself Meera may require assistance to release her grip on objects Provide assistance if Meera feel fatigue Upper body: Meera is able to wash her right side independently Meera require assistance to wash above her elbows on her left side Assistance may be needed to wash hair and back thoroughly Lower Body: Meera should be able to wash her genitals and front upper thighs independently Assist Meera in standing with the grab rail with one person supporting at all times Another person will assist Meera in cleaning her bottom and her rear upper thigh Encourage Meera to wash her lower thighs but prevent her from falling from the shower chair Assist in cleaning the rest of the lower thighs Dressing Upper Body: Encourage Meera to put on the bra independently using the one arm method. Allow Meera to use the one hand method to wear her t-shirt. Prompt her by reminding her of the steps if she is struggling Lower Body: Meera requires assistance to put on her trousers while assisted in standing. Both the restorative and adaptive approach was used to guide the intervention. Restorative approach is grounded upon neuroplasticity where relearning takes place when new neural connections form in the brain during constant exposure to various stimulus (Gillen 2016). By practising various movements of her affected side during self-care, Meera should have a reduction in her impairments. This is supported by a study where patients who went through functional motor relearning therapy were found to have improved balance and performance in self-care (Chan et al. 2006). The compensatory approach is where tasks are modified to be easier for the clients to achieve (Edmans 2010). Even though this approach has been criticized for hindering motor recovery in people with stroke, it is still appropriate for Meera (Jones 2017). The compensatory method of using the one hand dressing method served as a feedback mechanism which could improve motivation as supported by Popovic et al. (2014). This would thus encourage Meera to engage in therapy. Risk Management Plan Meera might be fatigue and may not be able to do some of the tasks required. The staff in charge will assist when required and allow Meera to rest when needed. Due to the intimate nature of a wash and dress, Meera might feel embarrassed and down during the process. In order to preserve her dignity, sensitive areas would be covered whenever necessary and observation would be subtle. Environmental hazards would be checked before commencing any transfers or wash and dress in order to prevent falls. Relapse prevention In the hospital setting, encouragement for frequent engagement in occupation and usage of relevant motor and cognitive skills would prevent Meeras occupational performance from deteriorating (Brainin et al. 2015; Ullberg et al. 2015). According to NICE (2013), long-term health and social support should include education on symptoms and dysfunction relating to stroke, services available and participation in meaningful occupation. As such, Meera and her family would be briefed on these strategies. Outcome Measures Evaluation of treatment outcomes is important to conclude if the intervention was successful and used to change the treatment plan according (Mew and Ivey 2010). The outcomes were evaluated by using goals and comparing standardized assessment at baseline and outcome. Firstly, intervention was evaluated through the achievement of goals. Goal achievement was linked to client satisfaction and a significant client-centred outcome (Custer et al. 2013). Meera was able to achieve the objectives as expected. Secondly, the AMPS was conducted again, using the task of showering and dressing (Fisher and Jones 2010). Meera scored higher in these tasks but still required some assistance in achieving them. Thirdly, Meera improved on the LOTCA tasks which involved visual scanning, little to no improvement was seen on the orientation and memory tasks (Itzkovich et al. 2000). Lastly, the RMA was conducted again (Lincoln and Leadbitter 1979). Meera improved in the trunk, leg and upper limb function but there were still signs of weakness and instability involved. Further plans Other domains of concern would be managed as according to initial assessment and outcome measures. Further interventions would include management of cognitive function such as memory and orientation through cooking. Including Meera in a social group such as breakfast club in the ward would be beneficial to her as well (Venna et al. 2014). To prepare for discharge, Meera would be referred to the Early Supported Discharge team. The team would help Meera and her family by introducing appropriate adaptations at home and relevant education on stroke (ISWP 2016). A smooth transition from hospital to home was found to improve patients function in activities of daily living and service satisfaction (Fearon et al. 2012). This would thus be beneficial for both Meera and her family. References Bartels MN, Duffy CA and Beland HE (2016) Pathophysiology, Medical Management, and Acute Rehabilitation of Stroke Survivors IN: Gillen G (ed) Stroke Rehabilitation: A Function-Based Approach (4th Edition). Missouri: Elsevier 2-45 Brainin M, Tuomilehto J, Heiss WD, Bornstein NM, Bath PMW, Teuschi Y, Richard E, Guekht A and Quinn T (2015) Post-stroke cognitive decline: an update and perspectives for clinical research. European Journal of Neurology 22(2):299-e16 Chan DYL, Chan CCH and Au DKS (2006) Motor relearning programme for stroke patients: A randomized controlled trial. Clinical Rehabilitation 30(3):191-200 Combs SA, Kelly SP, Barton R, Ivaska M and Nowak K (2010) Effects of an intensive, task-specific rehabilitation program for individuals with chronic stroke: A case series. Disability and Rehabilitation 32(8):669-678 Custer MG, Huebner RA, Freudenberger L, Nichols LR (2013) Client-chosen goals in occupational therapy: Strategy and instrument pilot. Occupational Therapy in Health Care 27(1):58-70 Edmans J (ed) (2010) Occupational Therapy and Stroke (2nd Edition). Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell Ellis C, Grubaugh AL and Egede LE (2013) Factors associated with SF-12 physical and mental health quality of life scores in adults with stroke. Journal of Stroke and Cerebrovascular Diseases 22(4):309-317 Fearon P, Langhorne P and Early Supported Discharge Trailists (2012) Services for reducing duration of hospital care for acute stroke patients. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 7: CD000443 Fisher AG and Jones KB (2010) Assessment of Motor and Process Skills Vol. 1: Development, Standardization and Administration Manual (7th Edition). Fort Collins: Three Star Press Gillen G (2016) Stroke Rehabilitation: A Functional-Based Approach (4th Edition). Missouri: Elsevier Intercollegiate Stroke Working Party (2016) National Clinical Guideline for Stroke. Royal College of Physicians. Available from: https://www.strokeaudit.org/SupportFiles/Documents/Guidelines/2016-National-Clinical-Guideline-for-Stroke-5t-(1).aspx [Accessed 28 March 2016] Itzkovich M, Averbuch S, Elazar B and Katz N (2000) Loewenstein Occupational Therapy Cognitive Assessment (LOTCA) Battery (2nd Edition). New Jersey: Maddak Inc. Jiang XG, Lin Y and Li YS (2014) Correlative study on risk factor of depression among acute stroke patients. European Review for Medical and Pharmacological Sciences 18(9):1315-1323 Jones TA (2017) Motor compensation and its effects on neural reorganization after stroke. Nature Reviews Neuroscience doi:10.1038. Available from: https://www.nature.com/nrn/journal/vaop/ncurrent/pdf/nrn.2017.26.pdf [Accessed 28 March 2017] Katz N, Hartman-Maeir A, Ring H and Soroker N (2000) Relationships of cognitive performance and daily function of clients following right hemisphere stroke: Predictive and ecological validity of the LOTCA battery. Occupation, Participation and Health 20(1):3-17 Kurtais Y, Kucukdeveci A, Elhan A, Yilmaz A, Kalli T, Tur BS and Tennant A (2009) Psychometric properties of the Rivermead Motor Assessment: Its utility in stroke. Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine 41(13):1055-1061 Lincoln N and Leadbitter D (1979) Assessment of motor function in stroke patients. Physiotherapy 65(2): 48-51 Mew M and Ivey J (2010) The Occupational Therapy Process IN: Edmans J (ed) Occupational Therapy and Stroke (2nd Edition). Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell 49-63 Mtui M, Gruener G and Docker P (2016) Fitzgeralds Clinical Neuroanatomy and Neuroscience (7th Edition). Philadelphia: Elsevier National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (2013) Stroke Rehabilitation in Adults. Available from: https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg162/resources/stroke-rehabilitation-in-adults-35109688408261 [Accessed 28 March 2016] Peoples H, Satink T and Steultjens (2011) Stroke surviors experiences of rehabilitation: A systematic review of qualitative studies. Scandinavian Journal of Occupational Therapy 18(3):163-171 Popovic MD, Kostic MD, Rodic SZ and Konstantinovic LM (2014) Feedback-mediated upper extremities exercise: Increasing patient motivation in poststroke rehabilitation. BioMed Research International 2014(2014): Article ID 520374. Available from: https://www.hindawi.com/journals/bmri/2014/520374/ [Accessed 28 March 2017] Salisbury District Hospital (2013) Occupational Therapy Washing and Dressing Assessment. Salisbury NHS Foundation Trust. Available from: http://www.icid.salisbury.nhs.uk/ClinicalManagement/RecordsAndForms/Documents/12e3053a7be542cabff277c26634947aAcuteOTWashDressAssv1007091.doc [Accessed 28 March 2017] Stroke Unit Trialists Collaboration (2013). Organised inpatient (stroke unit) care for stroke. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 9:CD000197 Toeh JY and Iwama MK (2015) The Kawa Model Made Easy: A Guide to Applying the Kawa Model in Occupational Therapy Practice (2nd Edition). Available from: http://www.kawamodel.com/download/KawaMadeEasy2015.pdf [Accessed 28 March 2017] Ullberg T, Zia E, Petersson J and Norrving B (2015) Changes in functional outcome over the first year after stroke: An observational study from the Swedish Stroke Register. Stroke 46(2):389-394 Venna VR, Xu Y, Doran SJ, Patrizz A and McCullough LD (2014) Social interaction plays a critical role in neurogenesis and recovery after stroke. Translational Psychiatry 4(1):e351 Appendix A Meera CVA Meera is a 56-year-old woman who was recently admitted with a left Cerebral Vascular Accident affecting the middle cerebral artery. She has a history of hypertension and hypercholesterolemia. She was admitted via A E after being found by her husband. Her husband reports that she felt unwell and made her way upstairs to have a lie down. He went out to walk the dog and on his return found her on the floor in the bathroom. Meera presents with a right hemiplegia with increased spasticity in her right arm and leg. As a result, she has difficult with sitting balance and co-ordinating her movements in order to engage in activities such as washing and dressing. Meera also presents with right sided neglect, which results in her failing to identify objects on her right side, difficulty washing her right side and responding to others who approach her from her right. She has difficulty in articulating in a meaningful way to get her needs met and is very tearful. The Occupational Therapist under took an initial assessment with Meera, the report is detailed below. Initial assessment summary Meera appears low in mood and is reluctant to talk about the future. She is worried that she may have another stroke and consequently is reluctant to engage in activity. Meera is embarrassed that she needs help in personal activities of daily living and is reluctant to talk about activities that she finds difficult. Family Meera is married to Sanjay, a 58-year-old man who works as a plumber. They have two children, Anni aged 18 years who has just completed her A levels and will be attending a local university in one months time, and Sam aged 17 who is at secondary school. Social situation The family live in a privately owned three bedroomed semi-detached property in a small town. Sanjay describes Meera as a stay at home mum who prides herself on her family and her cookery skills. Posture Meera has a right- sided hemiplegia; her scapular is unstable and she finds it difficult to flex her arm above 90 degrees. Elbow extension is uncontrolled and there is stiffness in her forearm making supination difficult. She is able to grasp objects but finds release very difficult. Sensory assessment Meera has poor deep and light sensation in her right hand, which has a profound effect on a range of performance areas. Cognition and perception Meera has a right sided neglect which interfers with washing and dressing, and transfers. She also has difficulty socialising with other patients on the ward due to to this. Meera has some cognitive impairment which presents as poor memory and disorientation. These features are more prominent at the end of the day when Meera is tired. Mobility Meera currently uses a wheelchair but can manage a controlled transfer with one person assisting.

Relationship With The Media And Tourism

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Such audience communication has been considered by various commentators as forming a mass society with special characteristics, in particular, atomization or the lack of social connections this makes it especially open to the influence of modern mass media techniques such as advertising and propaganda. Public media as a term is used much less and is defined as media whose mission is to server or engage a public. Mass media can be used for several purposes, these include: a. Advocacy, in business and social matters. This can include advertising, marketing, propaganda, public relations, and political communication. b. Entertainment, traditionally in the performing of music, acting and sports and more recently during the late 20th century via video and computer games. c. Public service announcements. What makes mass media so attractive? The tourism industry harnesses the mass media which in turn holds a form of mystique to the public. This is because the designed communication appeals to a wider demographic. Advances made in mass media technology aides the marketing and promotion of tourism. If it gets people talking then this is a sign of a good mass marketing drive. If it succeeds then not only does it mean that the advertising drive has worked well, but also that the organisation in charge will benefit by the much valued and sought after word-of-mouth method of advertising. 2) Types of Media It can be possible to divide the types of Media into 3 categories: Print Media, Electronic Media and New-age Media. à ¢- º Print Media à ¢-„ a. Book A book is a collection of sheets of paper, parchment or other material with a piece of text written on them, bound together along one edge within covers. A book is also a literary work or a main division of such a work. b. Magazine A magazine is a periodical publication containing a variety of articles, generally financed by advertising and/or purchase by readers. Magazines are typically published weekly, biweekly, monthly, bimonthly or quarterly, with a date on the cover that is in advance of the date it is actually published. They are often printed in color on coated paper, and are bound with a soft cover. Magazines can be classified as: General interest magazines (e.g. Frontline, India Today, The Week, The Sunday Indian etc) Special interest magazines (womens, sports, business, scuba diving, etc) c. Newspaper A newspaper is a publication containing news and information and advertising, usually printed on low-cost paper called newsprint. It may be general or special interest, most often published daily or weekly. The first printed newspaper was published in 1605, and the form has thrived even in the face of competition from technologies such as radio and television. à ¢- º Electronic Media à ¢-„ a. Broadcast: radio television Television and radio programs are distributed through radio broadcasting over frequency bands that are highly regulated by the Federal Communications Commission. Such regulation includes determination of the width of the bands, range, licencing, types of receivers and transmitters used, and acceptable content. b. Film Film encompasses motion pictures as individual projects, as well as the field in general. The name comes from the photographic film (also called filmstock), historically the primary medium for recording and displaying motion pictures. Many other terms exist motion pictures (or just pictures and picture), the silver screen, photoplays, the cinema, picture shows, flicks and commonly movies. c. Internet The Internet (also known simply as the Net or less precisely as the Web) is a more interactive medium of mass media, and can be briefly described as a network of networks. Specifically, it is the worldwide, publicly accessible network of interconnected computer networks that transmit data by packet switching using the standard Internet Protocol (IP). It consists of millions of smaller domestic, academic, business, and governmental networks, which together carry various information and services, such as electronic mail, online chat, file transfer, and the interlinked Web pages and other documents of the World Wide Web. à ¢- º New-age Media à ¢-„ a. Blogs (Web Logs) Blogging has become a huge form of media. A blog is a website, usually maintained by an individual, with regular entries of commentary, descriptions of events, or other material such as graphics or video. Entries are commonly displayed in reverse chronological order. Many blogs provide commentary or news on a particular subject; others function as more personal online diaries. b. RSS feeds RSS is a format for syndicating news and the content of news-like sites, including major news sites like Wired, news-oriented community sites like Slashdot, and personal blogs. It is a family of Web feed formats used to publish frequently updated content such as blog entries, news headlines, and podcasts. c. Podcast A podcast is a series of digital-media files which are distributed over the Internet using syndication feeds for playback on portable media players and computers. The term podcast, like broadcast, can refer either to the series of content itself or to the method by which it is syndicated; the latter is also called podcasting. The host or author of a podcast is often called a podcaster. d. Mobile Mobile phones were introduced in Japan in 1979 but became a mass media only in 1998 when the first downloadable ringing tones were introduced in Finland. Soon most forms of media content were introduced on mobile phones, and today the total value of media consumed on mobile towers over that of internet content, and was worth over 31 billion dollars in 2007 (source Informa). 3) Role of the media in tourism The mass media plays a unique role in modern society. Its growth has accompanies an increase in the magnitude and the complexity of actions and engagements within society. With rapid social change, innovation in technology, an increase in personal income, standard of life and the decline of some traditional forms of control and authority. Although much debated, there is an association between the development of mass media and social change, even after years of study into the influence of the media. Many of the consequences whether beneficial or detrimental which are attributed to the mass media are almost without doubt due to other tendencies within society. Sociologists would rarely deny the significance of mass media and mass communications as a whole, as being a main feature in the construction and circulation of modern social understanding and imagery. The media play a crucial role in putting emerging destinations in Eastern Europe and Central Asia onto the global tourist map, helping to boost the local economies, according to the United Nations Tourism Organisation (UNTO) (http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=23983Cr=georgiaCr1=tourism). The vast majority of travel is decided upon by people who have never before travelled to that particular destination, and are therefore dependant on media reporting. Should a crisis occur, tourism can be seriously damaged. 4) Relationship with Media and Tourism It can not be ignored that the recent boom in tourism can be attributed to the media. Information is accessed using it and an education regarding the many interesting attractions to be found around the world. The internet is possibly the most popular source of information on destinations and the best way of reaching them. Through the Internet, information and various articles on a destination can be found which will give the traveller an advantage. They will also gain knowledge to determine which places best suit them and offer them the most. Using the internet is fairly easy and cheap to book. With online travel agencies, flights and trips can be booked simply by logging on to a particular website and making a choice from any of the tour packages the agency offers. 2. Effects of media on tourism The internet has for a long time been a key component and aide in the technology of travel. Surveys show that the trend is rising in numbers and indicate that travellers are doing their research and booking more and more of their travel online. Whist traditionally the realm of most major websites who were offering low airline fares with all the accompaniments are now in a position to offer even more. Social media now provides a completely new opportunity for interaction with its potential customers. It has become a global media platform which is at last, companies in all sectors are finding new way to: (http://38minutes.ning.com/profiles/blogs/can-social-media-make-an, Can Social Media make an impact on Travel and Tourism?) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ provide a greatly improved customer service à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ respond to customer needs in the marketplace à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ extend their real-world brands beyond current geographic restrictions These same things can occur in the world of travel and tourism! 1) Economy The tourism industry generates substantial economic benefits to host countries and tourists home countries. Particularly in developing countries, one of the first motivations for a region to promote itself as a tourism destination is the improvement made to its economy. Along with other factors, this massive economic development can bring both positive and negative consequences. (www.geointeractive.co.uk//economic%20impact%20of%20tourism.ppt, Globalisation and Tourism: Impact of Tourism) à ¢- ºNegative impact à ¢-„ There are numerous hidden costs relating to tourism, these can have a negative effect on the economy of the host community. Wealthy countries are better placed to profit from tourism rather than the poorer ones. In addition, the countries last developed will have the most urgent need for income, employment created by it and a general rise in living standards. These countries are less likely to realise these benefits due to large scale transfer of tourism revenues leaving the host country also the exclusion of local businesses and their products. a. Leakage The direct income for an area is the amount of tourist revenue that remains locally after taxes, profits and salaries are paid outside the area and after imports, these subtracted amounts are called leakage. Generally, in most all-inclusive package tours, around 80% of a travellers expenditure will go to the airline, hotels and other international companies, as opposed to local businesses and workers. In addition to this, significant amount of income actually retained at destination level can leave again through leakage. In Thailand, a study of leakage in tourism showed that an estimated 70% of all money spent by tourists actually left Thailand. There are two main ways that leakage occurs: Import leakage: This mostly occurs when tourists demand certain standards of foods, equipment and other products that the host country cannot supply. On average the import-related leakage for most developing countries to-date is between 40% and 50% of gross tourism earnings for small economies and between 10% and 20% for most advanced and diversified economies. Export leakage: Often, found in poorer developing countries, these are the only destinations that possess the necessary capital needed to invest in the construction of tourism infrastructure and its facilities. An outcome of this is an export leakage which will arise when overseas investors who finance the resorts and hotels take their profits back to country of origin. b. Enclave Tourism Local businesses sometimes see their opportunity to earn income from tourists severely reduced by the creation of all-inclusive holiday packages. When a tourist spends their entire stay at the same resort or cruise ship, which cater for all their needs and where they make all their purchases, there is little or no opportunity for local people to profit from tourism. All-inclusive hotels generate the largest amount of revenue but their impact on the economy is less per dollar of revenue than other forms of accommodation. All-inclusives also import more and employ fewer people per dollar of revenue than other hotels. The cruise ship industry provides another example of economic enclave tourism. In 1999 non-river cruises carried around 8.7 million international passengers. On some ships guests were encouraged to spend most of their time and money on board, more notably in the Caribbean. Guest opportunities to make purchases in certain ports are closely managed and restricted. c. Infrastructure cost Tourism development can cost the local government and local taxpayers a great deal of money. Developers may insist the government improve airports, roads and other infrastructure, along with tax breaks and other financial advantages, which can turn out to very expensive. Though the improvement of a countrys infrastructure can be deemed to be a necessity, when public resources are spent in such a way, it is often at the exposure of critical areas such as health and education. d. Increase in prices A tourist demands for services and goods will often cause price increases that react negatively on local residents whose income may not rise proportionately. Tourism development and the related rise in the demand of real estate may increase considerably along with a dramatic rise in building costs and land values, making basic daily requirements more difficult to attain. e. Economic dependence of the local community on tourism For a healthy economy diversification is a necessity. However, if a country or region becomes increasingly dependant for its economic survival upon one industry, it can put severe strain upon itself and the people involved to perform well. Developing countries, especially those without the ability to explore other resources have welcome tourism as a way to boost their economy. In Gambia, for example, 30% of workers depend directly or indirectly on tourism. Many small island states struggling to develop, percentages can range from 83% in the Maldives to 21% in the Seychelles and 34% in Jamaica. To rely solely on tourism carries a risk to those tourist-dependant economies. Economic recession, the impact of natural disasters such as tropical storms and changing patterns in tourism can all have a devastating effect. f. Seasonal character of jobs Problems that seasonal workers face include: job and income insecurity guarantee of employment difficulties in getting training employment-related medical benefits recognition of their experience working conditions and unsatisfactory and working conditions. à ¢- º Positive impact à ¢-„ a. Foreign exchange earnings Tourism expenditure will help generate income to the host economy which will stimulate the necessary investment for financial growth in various economic sectors. Some countries may accelerate growth by insisting that visitors bring in a certain amount of foreign currency for each day of the duration of their stay. A significant indicator of the role of international tourism is its generation of foreign exchange earnings. In 83% of countries, tourism is one of the leading five export categories this accounts for the main source of foreign exchange earnings for at least 38% of countries. b. Contribution to government revenues Taxes generated by direct contributions on incomes from tourism employment and businesses and direct levies made on tourist e.g. departure tax. Indirect contributions arrive via tax and duties charged on services and goods supplied to tourists. The TWO assumes that tourism and travels direct and indirect, and personal tax contribution globally was more than US$800 billion in 1998 this figure is expected to double by the year 2010. c. Employment generation International tourism and its rapid expansion has significantly increased employment. Eg. Hotel accommodation alone has provided around 11.3 million jobs worldwide during 1995. Tourism is able to create jobs directly via hotels, restaurants, nightclubs, souvenir sales and taxis amongst others, and indirectly via the supply of goods and services required tourist-related outlets and businesses. Tourism supports up to 7% of the global workforce. d. Stimulation of infrastructure investment Tourism can stimulate local government to make much needed infrastructure improvements, better water and sewage systems, roads, electricity, public transport and telephone amenities can all benefit from such investments. This will all invigorate, encourage, and improve the lives of residents and the tourist combined. e. Contribution to local economies The environment relies heavily on the assets of tourism revenues are often used amongst other in the economic value of protected areas. Other revenues are not so easily quantified, as not all of tourists spends is formally logged. Revenue is earned from tourism via informal labour such as street render, guides and drivers. A positive side to informal employment is that monies are generally recycled within the local economy this has a good multiplying effect as it is spend repeatedly over and over again its community. The WTO has estimated that tourism will probably generate an indirect contribution that will be equal to 100% of the direct total of tourism expenditure. 2) Culture There are concerns that the development of tourism could lead to some destinations losing their cultural identity if they cater for the presumed requirements of their tourists, in particular, the international market. This is based on the observations of other destinations having compromised their sense of identity. The experience of tourism can be somewhat different to the things people see and do when in a home environment, this includes the real life experience and lifestyle of the places and the people they may see during their visit. (http://www.gawler.sa.gov.au/webdata/resources/files/5_Gawler_Impacts_Tourism.PDF, The Social Cultural Impacts of Tourism) à ¢- º Positive impact à ¢-„ Tourism is an opportunity for cultural exchange and more, creating an interaction within people of different lifestyles, aspirations and needs. Putting economic benefits aside, experiencing outside contact within various communities draws attention to the host community. People will always want to interact with other cultures and communities in the hope of learning of their traditions or possibly be confronted by new challenges and perspectives on life. It has been said that travel is a means to discover that things unknown or forgotten within ourselves. Tourism is obviously an experience driven industry the more you do it the more you want it. In addition local culture is a unique experience, along with the local personality, food and hospitality. The more one knows and learns about a destination, the more fulfilling the experience will be. Tourism is often used as a tool for raising awareness. The local branding of certain products and achievements can create regional identity, nationally and internationally. The needs and awareness of local issues can be raised by tourism. There is a global trend that aims towards investment in interpretation of natural and cultural resources. The attraction to natural and heritage icons often helps to fund numerous conservation project it also provides opportunities for the management of those sensitive and significant areas. A growing and important number of cultural celebrations have emerged which highlight many important events whilst paying homage to their ancestry. Cultural events can assert their identity which help and preserve local traditions for younger generations they also influence and inform visitors. In Australia main urban areas which tend to be multicultural and have developed their own very unique cultures. Many mostly regional areas are very much influenced by the food and the culture of their founders. Local food, crafts and personalities are always kept alive and kicking purely by tourism whilst raising funds for the greater community. Tourism can often boost the preservations and transmission of cultural and historical traditions. This will often help with conservation and the sustainable management of natural resources, the protection of local heritage, and a revival of indigenous cultures and arts and crafts. à ¢- ºNegative impact à ¢-„ Many impacts are socio-cultural and result in a lack of information, false impressions, poor communication and knowledge and misinformation. Negative perceptions and attitudes towards visitors and tourism in general can affect tourism and communities. Ill feelings towards tourism, delays/obstructions to tourism product development plus lack of council/authority support can prevent tourism from flourishing; perhaps these communities are not yet ready or even prepared for the onslaught of tourism. Problems with the economy or the environment can all too easily, rightly or wrongly, be blamed on tourism. Leaving the channels of communication open and with adequate consultation transparency and involvement at community level at all stages during the planning process can benefit communities in taking ownership of tourism. In some circumstances the word tourist has become a negative term; in fact, many travellers no longer consider themselves as tourists and prefer the term traveller. There is a clear change in attitude of both the traveller and communities to the concept of the visitor. This concept now gives strength to the fact that travellers are merely guests of the community and that their stay in that community is very much a privilege and not a right. 3. Media marketing in tourism industry 1) How Film and TV drama images promote the new destination Greater knowledge of a country can be gained from film and TV. The wildlife, fauna, culture and its people can result in the broadening of minds and general attitudes towards the country. An interest in the nation and its positive image can eventually lead to an actual visit to the country (Iwashita, 2006). Leisure activities such as watching films as well as traveling are ways to escape. Both provide temporary relief from the real world (Carl et al., 2007). Films can induce viewers to travel by the physical properties (scenery and landscape) and their associated theme, storylines, events and actors, shaping the audience feelings, emotion and attitudes towards places. Location and film experiences are enhanced in memories by associating them with the actors, events and setting (Iwashita 2006; Riley Van Doren, 1992). One of the effective strategies to induce film tourists is collaborative campaigns with the film industry (Grihault, 2003). England provides an excellent example of the way in which film and television has boosted the tourism industry. Approximately 28 million visitors visit Britain each year after viewing the country on the screen (Kim et al., 2008). VisitBritain has made various efforts to temp Indian film makers to use UK locations in Bollywood movies, even if locations are used as backdrops for other countries. Movie maps have also been widely used to promote film locations of the destination. Movie maps have been found to be successful as part of film tourism marketing campaigns (Hudson Ritchie, 2006b). They can be used to ease film tourist in identifying various locations where the film has taken place. A movie map has been produced by VisitBritain highlighting more than 200 filmed locations across the UK. These materials have quickly become Visit-Britain most successful printed product. Other marketing strategies have included guided film tours and walks. Such tours have relied heavily on film illustrations enabling the tourist to identify the landscapes and buildings that have been used in the making of the move. There should also be a website dedicated to film tourism that will provide film synopsis, links to film-related websites, the necessary relevant information about travel within the destination including tours, accommodation, food, shopping and the opportunity to learn about film destination, the language, history, religion, lifestyle and leisure. 2) How consumers make a decision on their destination Literature on tourism shows that the image of a destination will influence significantly the tourists choice of destination. Images of destinations play a significant role in influencing tourist decision-making process as the basis for tourists to make choice about where to visit (Gartner 1989; Echtner Ritchie 1991). The more favourable the image of the destination, the greater the likelihood of being selected as a destination choice (Chon 1990; Um 1993). Butler (1990) suggests that films can influence the travel preference of those who expose to the destination attributes and create a favourable destination image through their representation. To influence the choice of destinations, understanding of how decisions are made and which factors can influence them are regarded as the important pieces of information (Woodside Carr, 1988). There are plenty models explaining the tourist decision-making process which include important variables influencing tourist decisions. It has long been recognized that travel stimuli through marketing efforts and previous travel experience have played an important role in influencing destination choice. Non-touristic-directed stimuli such as films can also have strong influences on tourist decision-making (Iwashita, 2003). These stimuli have not yet been included in the tourist decision-making models as important variables. The power of film in portraying a positive destination image to induce tourist arrivals to a place is clearly shown in various research (e.g. Tooke Baker 1996; Iwashita 2006; Kim et al., 2008). Having reviewed the literature, it was found that film-induced tourism is relatively new in tourism research. Research on the impact of film on tourist decision-making is even lacking (Busby Klug 2001; Hudson Ritchie 2006b; Rewtrakunphaiboon 2008). 4. Media on tourism of countries 1) Impact of Film on Visitor Number Film-induced tourism has brought major economic benefits to local communities such as lasting tourist receipts. Film locations can be all-year, all-weather attractions which alleviates problems of seasonality in the tourism industry (Beeton, 2004). Riley et al. (1998) studied 12 films and found that the peak of the interest appear after the release of the film, approximately 50% increase in visitation at least five years later and the image is often retained for a long time. 2) How films and TV drama influence on tourism A further significant benefit of film tourism is the increase in cultural value to the location of the film. Numerous heritage sites have been used as film locations and in many cases have seen their popularity soar as a result, particularly after its release. Such sites acquire specific meaning through its film narration. Without film storylines, a castle or a stately home may not be indistinguishable form others (Busby Klug, 2001). Film locations worldwide now play a major role in deciding which country a tourist will visit. The American soap opera Sex and the City is one of the examples that have become such a big hit not only in the United States but around the world. Hundreds of shops, restaurants and bars that were featured in the film have become significant destinations and an added reason to visit New York. à ¢- º Specific Film and drama cases à ¢-„ a. The Piano, Lord of Ring, etc (New Zealand) New Zealand is one of the latest destinations to benefit from film-induced tourism. The movie, The Piano has provided many positive benefits form tourism within New Zealand. New Zealand was shown in its promotional posters which in turn aided and promoted international tourism advertising. The image of New Zealand has been enhanced further after being the backdrop to all three Lord of the Rings films. The New Zealand tourism website promotes itself as Home of Middle-earth. Amongst other popular films that were shot in New Zealand include The Last Samurai, Whale Rider and Perfect Strangers. Websites that link particular films to their film locations is a very effective promotional tool to induce tourists to the destination (Croy Walker, 2003). This promotion strategy has been used in New Zealand where Tourism New Zealand developed part of its website to specifically promote The Lord of the Rings and other film locations throughout the country. b. TV drama (South Korea) The Korean film named Stairway to Heaven, one of the popular television series in Asia, was shot in many clichà © places but the sentimental location is the merry-go-round at the Lotte World. After the release of the film, the merry-go-round at Lotte World has become the famous attraction among Asian tourists (Aran, 2007). Evidence shows that the emotional attachment that film-induced tourists have with the film is a recreation of the often stunning locations. In Winter Sonata, the evidence is shown and impression scene of two lovers holding hands whilst walking on a log. This famous log has now had to be destroyed and removed from the location due to an overwhelming number of visitors, some attempting to emulate the scene in the film. Film can enhance the destination image and increase the awareness of the host city. Previous research (Kim Richardson, 2003) suggests that those who are exposed to the film have more favourable destination image towards destinations featured through films than those who are not exposed to films. 5. Conclusion This report shows the relationship between the tourism and the media and its actual effect on tourism. It also gives an illuminating perception of film-induced tourism by revealing a lack of research in tourism and requesting further empirical studies into this aspect of tourism. It also shows the advantages to be had from film-induced tourism, opening up many locations to a wider audience and informing the tourism more than traditionally targeted tourism promotional campaigns. The marketing of film tourism has been used successfully in many of the leading film locations in United Kingdom, United States, Korea and New Zeal